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  • 1 back

    I [bæk]
    1) schiena f., dorso m.; zool. dorso m., groppa f.

    to be (flat) on one's back — essere, stare (coricato) sulla schiena, supino; fig. essere a letto

    to turn one's back on sb., sth. — voltare le spalle, la schiena a qcn., qcs. (anche fig.)

    to do sth. behind sb.'s back — fare qcs. alle spalle di qcn. (anche fig.)

    2) (reverse side) (of page, cheque, envelope) retro m.; (of fabric, medal, coin) rovescio m.; (of hand) dorso m.
    3) (rear-facing part) (of vehicle, electrical appliance) parte f. posteriore; (of shirt, coat) dietro m.

    to be out back to be in the back AE (in the garden) essere in giardino; (in the yard) essere in cortile; there's a small garden out back o round the back c'è un piccolo giardino sul retro; the steps at the back of the building — la scala sul retro dell'edificio

    5) aut.

    to sit at the back of the plane, at the back of the bus — sedersi in fondo all'aereo, all'autobus

    6) (furthest away area) (of cupboard, drawer) fondo m.; (of stage) sfondo m.

    at o in the back of the drawer in fondo al cassetto; those at the back couldn't see — quelli in fondo non riuscivano a vedere

    7) (of chair, sofa) schienale m.
    8) sport difensore m., terzino m.
    9) (end) fine f., fondo m.
    ••

    to put one's back into it — colloq. darci dentro o mettercela tutta

    he's always on my back — colloq. mi sta sempre addosso

    to be at the back of — essere dietro a [conspiracy, proposal]

    to break the back of a journey, task — fare il grosso di un viaggio, di un lavoro

    II [bæk]
    1) (at the rear) [wheel, paw, leg, edge] posteriore, di dietro colloq.; [bedroom, garden, gate] sul retro; [ page] ultimo
    2) (isolated) [ road] secondario

    back alley, lane — vicolo, viuzza

    3) econ. comm. [rent, interest, tax] arretrato
    III [bæk]

    to be back — essere di ritorno, tornare

    to arrive o come back tornare (indietro); he's back at work è tornato al lavoro o ha ripreso a lavorare; she's back in (the) hospital è di nuovo in ospedale o è tornata in ospedale; when is he due back? quando deve tornare? the mini-skirt is back — la minigonna è di nuovo di moda

    to call, phone back — richiamare, ritelefonare

    to punch sb. back — restituire un pugno a qcn.

    to smile back at sb. — ricambiare un sorriso a qcn

    3) (backwards) [glance, step, lean] indietro; [ jump] (all')indietro

    a week, five minutes back — una settimana, cinque minuti prima o fa

    back in 1964, April — nel 1964, ad aprile

    8) (to sb.'s possession)

    to give, send sth. back — rendere, rispedire qcs.

    to put sth. back — rimettere a posto qcs.

    meanwhile, back in Italy, he... — nel frattempo, in Italia, lui...

    11) back and forth avanti e indietro

    to swing back and forth — [ pendulum] oscillare (avanti e indietro)

    IV 1. [bæk]
    1) (support) sostenere, appoggiare [party, person, bid, strike, enterprise, project]; appoggiare [ application]
    2) (finance) finanziare [project, undertaking]
    3) (endorse) sostenere [ currency]

    to back a bill — comm. econ. avallare una cambiale

    4) (substantiate) suffragare, convalidare [argument, claim]

    to back sb. into sth. — fare indietreggiare qcn. fino dentro qcs

    6) (bet on) puntare, scommettere su [horse, favourite, winner]
    7) (stiffen, line) rinforzare [ structure]; foderare [ book]; rinforzare, rintelare [ painting]; intelare, foderare [ fabric]
    2.
    1) (reverse) fare marcia indietro
    2) mar. [ wind] cambiare direzione
    •
    * * *
    [bæk] 1. noun
    1) (in man, the part of the body from the neck to the bottom of the spine: She lay on her back.) schiena
    2) (in animals, the upper part of the body: She put the saddle on the horse's back.) dorso
    3) (that part of anything opposite to or furthest from the front: the back of the house; She sat at the back of the hall.) fondo, parte posteriore
    4) (in football, hockey etc a player who plays behind the forwards.) difensore, terzino
    2. adjective
    (of or at the back: the back door.) posteriore
    3. adverb
    1) (to, or at, the place or person from which a person or thing came: I went back to the shop; He gave the car back to its owner.) indietro
    2) (away (from something); not near (something): Move back! Let the ambulance get to the injured man; Keep back from me or I'll hit you!) indietro
    3) (towards the back (of something): Sit back in your chair.) indietro
    4) (in return; in response to: When the teacher is scolding you, don't answer back.) indietro; (rispondere)
    5) (to, or in, the past: Think back to your childhood.) indietro
    4. verb
    1) (to (cause to) move backwards: He backed (his car) out of the garage.) fare marcia indietro
    2) (to help or support: Will you back me against the others?) sostenere
    3) (to bet or gamble on: I backed your horse to win.) puntare
    •
    - backbite
    - backbiting
    - backbone
    - backbreaking
    - backdate
    - backfire
    - background
    - backhand     5. adverb
    (using backhand: She played the stroke backhand; She writes backhand.) di rovescio; obliquamente
    - back-number
    - backpack
    - backpacking: go backpacking
    - backpacker
    - backside
    - backslash
    - backstroke
    - backup
    - backwash
    - backwater
    - backyard
    - back down
    - back of
    - back on to
    - back out
    - back up
    - have one's back to the wall
    - put someone's back up
    - take a back seat
    * * *
    I [bæk]
    1) schiena f., dorso m.; zool. dorso m., groppa f.

    to be (flat) on one's back — essere, stare (coricato) sulla schiena, supino; fig. essere a letto

    to turn one's back on sb., sth. — voltare le spalle, la schiena a qcn., qcs. (anche fig.)

    to do sth. behind sb.'s back — fare qcs. alle spalle di qcn. (anche fig.)

    2) (reverse side) (of page, cheque, envelope) retro m.; (of fabric, medal, coin) rovescio m.; (of hand) dorso m.
    3) (rear-facing part) (of vehicle, electrical appliance) parte f. posteriore; (of shirt, coat) dietro m.

    to be out back to be in the back AE (in the garden) essere in giardino; (in the yard) essere in cortile; there's a small garden out back o round the back c'è un piccolo giardino sul retro; the steps at the back of the building — la scala sul retro dell'edificio

    5) aut.

    to sit at the back of the plane, at the back of the bus — sedersi in fondo all'aereo, all'autobus

    6) (furthest away area) (of cupboard, drawer) fondo m.; (of stage) sfondo m.

    at o in the back of the drawer in fondo al cassetto; those at the back couldn't see — quelli in fondo non riuscivano a vedere

    7) (of chair, sofa) schienale m.
    8) sport difensore m., terzino m.
    9) (end) fine f., fondo m.
    ••

    to put one's back into it — colloq. darci dentro o mettercela tutta

    he's always on my back — colloq. mi sta sempre addosso

    to be at the back of — essere dietro a [conspiracy, proposal]

    to break the back of a journey, task — fare il grosso di un viaggio, di un lavoro

    II [bæk]
    1) (at the rear) [wheel, paw, leg, edge] posteriore, di dietro colloq.; [bedroom, garden, gate] sul retro; [ page] ultimo
    2) (isolated) [ road] secondario

    back alley, lane — vicolo, viuzza

    3) econ. comm. [rent, interest, tax] arretrato
    III [bæk]

    to be back — essere di ritorno, tornare

    to arrive o come back tornare (indietro); he's back at work è tornato al lavoro o ha ripreso a lavorare; she's back in (the) hospital è di nuovo in ospedale o è tornata in ospedale; when is he due back? quando deve tornare? the mini-skirt is back — la minigonna è di nuovo di moda

    to call, phone back — richiamare, ritelefonare

    to punch sb. back — restituire un pugno a qcn.

    to smile back at sb. — ricambiare un sorriso a qcn

    3) (backwards) [glance, step, lean] indietro; [ jump] (all')indietro

    a week, five minutes back — una settimana, cinque minuti prima o fa

    back in 1964, April — nel 1964, ad aprile

    8) (to sb.'s possession)

    to give, send sth. back — rendere, rispedire qcs.

    to put sth. back — rimettere a posto qcs.

    meanwhile, back in Italy, he... — nel frattempo, in Italia, lui...

    11) back and forth avanti e indietro

    to swing back and forth — [ pendulum] oscillare (avanti e indietro)

    IV 1. [bæk]
    1) (support) sostenere, appoggiare [party, person, bid, strike, enterprise, project]; appoggiare [ application]
    2) (finance) finanziare [project, undertaking]
    3) (endorse) sostenere [ currency]

    to back a bill — comm. econ. avallare una cambiale

    4) (substantiate) suffragare, convalidare [argument, claim]

    to back sb. into sth. — fare indietreggiare qcn. fino dentro qcs

    6) (bet on) puntare, scommettere su [horse, favourite, winner]
    7) (stiffen, line) rinforzare [ structure]; foderare [ book]; rinforzare, rintelare [ painting]; intelare, foderare [ fabric]
    2.
    1) (reverse) fare marcia indietro
    2) mar. [ wind] cambiare direzione
    •

    English-Italian dictionary > back

  • 2 back

    back [bæk]
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    1. noun
       a. [of person, animal] dos m
    • to stand or sit with one's back to sb/sth tourner le dos à qn/qch
    • get off my back, will you? fiche-moi la paix !► to get sb's back up hérisser qn
    • put your back into it! (inf) allons, un peu de nerf ! (inf)► to turn one's back on sb/sth
       b. [of object] dos m ; [of chair] dossier m ; [of building] arrière m
    ► at the back [of building] derrière ; [of book] à la fin ; [of cupboard, hall] au fond
    • at the very back tout au fond► at the back of [+ building] derrière ; [+ book] à la fin de ; [+ cupboard, hall] au fond de
    ► in back of (US) [+ building, car] à l'arrière de
       c. (of part of body) [of head] derrière m ; [of hand] dos m
       d. (Football, hockey) arrière m
       a. ( = not front) [wheel] arrière inv
    • the back room [of house] la pièce du fond ; [of pub, restaurant] l'arrière-salle f
       b. [taxes] arriéré
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ► When back is an element in a phrasal verb, eg come back, put back, look up the verb.
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
       a. (in space, time) (stand) back! reculez !
    • stay well back! n'approchez pas !
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    ► When followed by a preposition, back is often not translated.
    ━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━━
    • meanwhile, back in London... pendant ce temps-là, à Londres...
    ► to go back and forth, to go back and forward [person] faire des allées et venues ; [phone calls, emails, letters] être échangé
       b. ( = returned)
       c. ( = reimbursed) I got/want my money back j'ai récupéré/je veux récupérer mon argent
       a. ( = support) soutenir ; [+ statement] confirmer
       b. ( = finance) financer
       c. ( = bet on) parier sur
       d. [+ vehicle] reculer
    • to back the car in/out entrer/sortir en marche arrière
    ( = move backwards) reculer
    • to back out [vehicle] sortir en marche arrière ; [person] sortir à reculons
    • to do sth by or through the back door faire qch par des moyens détournés ► back line noun (Sport) ligne f d'arrières
    ► back-lit adjective [stage] éclairé de derrière or par l'arrière ; [screen] rétro-éclairé
    ► back number noun [of newspaper] vieux numéro m
    ( = draw back) reculer
    [house]
    [person] sortir à reculons ; [car] sortir en marche arrière ; (of undertaking) revenir sur ses engagements
    [+ deal, agreement] se retirer de ; [+ undertaking] se soustraire à
       a. ( = reverse) faire marche arrière
       a. [+ theory, claim] confirmer ; [+ person] soutenir
       b. [+ vehicle] faire reculer
       c. [+ computer file] faire une copie de sauvegarde de
    * * *
    [bæk] 1.
    1) Anatomy, Zoology dos m

    to be (flat) on one's back — lit être (à plat) sur le dos; fig être au lit

    to turn one's back on somebody/something — lit, fig tourner le dos à quelqu'un/quelque chose

    to do something behind somebody's back — lit, fig faire quelque chose dans le dos de quelqu'un

    2) ( reverse side) (of page, cheque, hand, fork, envelope) dos m; ( of fabric) envers m; (of medal, coin) revers m
    3) ( rear-facing part) (of vehicle, head) arrière m; ( of electrical appliance) face f arrière; (of shirt, coat) dos m; (of chair, sofa) dossier m

    on the back of the door/head — derrière la porte/tête

    to be out back —

    to be in the back — US être dans le jardin or la cour

    there's a small garden out back ou round the back — il y a un petit jardin derrière (la maison)

    5) (of car, plane) arrière m
    6) (of cupboard, drawer, fridge, bus, stage) fond m

    at ou in the back of the drawer — au fond du tiroir

    7) Sport arrière m
    8) ( end) fin f
    2.
    1) ( at the rear) [leg, paw, edge, wheel] arrière; [bedroom] du fond; [page] dernier/-ière (before n); [garden, gate] de derrière
    2) ( isolated) [road] petit (before n)

    back alley ou lane — ruelle f

    3) Finance, Commerce

    back interest/rent/tax — arriérés mpl d'intérêts/de loyer/d'impôts

    3.

    to arrive ou come back — rentrer ( from de)

    the mini-skirt is back — ( in fashion) les mini-jupes sont de nouveau à la mode

    2) ( in return)

    to call ou phone back — rappeler

    3) ( backwards) [glance, jump, step, lean] en arrière
    4) ( away)

    ten pages back — dix pages (avant or plus tôt)

    5) ( ago)

    a week/five minutes back — il y a une semaine/cinq minutes

    meanwhile, back in France, he... — pendant ce temps, en France, il...

    4.
    back and forth adverbial phrase

    to go ou travel back and forth — ( commute) [person, bus] faire la navette ( between entre)

    to walk ou go back and forth — faire des allées et venues ( between entre)

    to swing back and forth — [pendulum] osciller

    the film cuts ou moves back and forth between New York and Paris — le film se passe entre New York et Paris

    5.
    1) ( support) soutenir [party, person, bid, bill, strike, action]; appuyer [application]; apporter son soutien à [enterprise, project]
    2) ( finance) financer [project, undertaking]
    3) ( endorse) garantir [currency]

    to back a bill — Commerce, Finance endosser or avaliser une traite

    4) ( substantiate) justifier [argument, claim] ( with à l'aide de)
    5) ( reverse)
    6) ( bet on) parier sur [horse, favourite, winner]
    7) (stiffen, line) consolider, renforcer [structure]; endosser [book]; renforcer [map]; maroufler [painting]; doubler [fabric]
    6.
    - backed combining form

    a high-/low-backed chair — une chaise avec un dossier haut/bas

    2) (lined, stiffened)

    canvas-/foam-backed — doublé de toile/de mousse

    3) ( supported)
    4) ( financed)
    •
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ••

    he's always on my back — (colloq) il est toujours sur mon dos

    to break the back of a journey/task — faire le plus gros du voyage/travail

    English-French dictionary > back

  • 3 back

    A n
    1 Anat, Zool dos m ; to be (flat) on one's back lit être (à plat) sur le dos ; fig être au lit ; to sleep on one's back dormir sur le dos ; he was lying on his back il était allongé sur le dos ; to travel on the back of a donkey voyager à dos d'âne ; to have one's back to sb/sth tourner le dos à qn/qch ; with her back to the door le dos tourné vers la porte ; to turn one's back on sb/sth lit, fig tourner le dos à qn/qch ; as soon as my back is turned dès que j'ai le dos tourné ; to do sth behind sb's back lit, fig faire qch dans le dos de qn ; with one's back to the engine dans le sens contraire à la marche ; to put one's back into it ○ travailler dur ; put your back into it ○ ! allons, un peu de nerf ○ ! ; he's always on my back ○ il est toujours sur mon dos ; get off my back ○ ! fiche-moi la paix ○ ! ; I was glad to see the back of him j'étais content de le voir partir ; to be at the back of être à l'origine de [conspiracy, proposal] ; to put sb's back up offenser qn ; to live off sb's back vivre aux crochets de qn ;
    2 ( reverse side) (of page, cheque, card, envelope) dos m, verso m ; ( of fabric) envers m ; (of medal, coin) revers m ; on the back of an envelope au dos d'une enveloppe ; to sign the back of a cheque endosser un chèque ; the back of the hand le dos de la main ;
    3 ( flat side) (of knife, fork, spoon) dos m ;
    4 ( rear-facing part) ( of vehicle) arrière m ; ( of electrical appliance) face f arrière ; (of shirt, coat) dos m ; to hang one's coat on the back of the door pendre son manteau derrière la porte ; the shelves are oak but the back is plywood les étagères sont en chêne mais le fond est en contreplaqué ; a blow to the back of the head un coup sur l'arrière de la tête ; a lump on the back of the head une bosse derrière la tête ; the knife fell down the back of the fridge le couteau est tombé derrière le réfrigérateur ; the keys were down the back of the sofa les clés avaient glissé derrière les coussins du canapé ;
    5 ( area behind building) to be out back, to be in the back US ( in the garden) être dans le jardin ; ( in the yard) être dans la cour ; he's round ou in the back il est dans le jardin ; the view out back is lovely la vue que l'on a à l'arrière est très jolie ; there's a small garden out back ou round the back il y a un petit jardin derrière ; the bins are out back ou round the back les poubelles sont derrière la maison ; the steps at the back of the building l'escalier à l'arrière de l'immeuble ;
    6 Aut arrière m ; to sit in the back s'asseoir à l'arrière ; there are three children in the back il y a trois enfants à l'arrière ; to sit at the back of the plane/at the back of the bus s'asseoir à l'arrière de l'avion/au fond du bus ;
    7 ( furthest away area) (of cupboard, drawer, fridge) fond m ; ( of stage) fond m ; at ou in the back of the drawer au fond du tiroir ; right at the back of the cupboard tout au fond du placard ; at the back of the audience au fond de la salle ; those at the back couldn't see ceux qui étaient derrière ne pouvaient pas voir ; the back of the throat l'arrière-gorge f ; the back of the mouth la gorge f ;
    8 (of chair, sofa) dossier m ;
    9 Sport arrière m ; left back arrière gauche ;
    10 ( end) fin f ; at the back of the book/file à la fin du livre/fichier ;
    11 ( book spine) dos m.
    B adj
    1 ( at the rear) [axle, wheel, bumper] arrière ; [paw, leg] arrière ; [bedroom] du fond ; [edge] arrière ; [page] dernier/-ière (before n) ; [garden, gate] de derrière ; back tooth molaire f ;
    2 ( isolated) [road] petit (before n) ; back alley ou lane ruelle f ; back country arrière-pays m.
    C adv
    1 ( indicating return after absence) to be back être de retour ; I'll be back in five minutes/six weeks je reviens dans cinq minutes/six semaines ; to arrive ou come back rentrer (from de) ; he's back at work il a repris le travail ; she's back in (the) hospital elle est retournée à l'hôpital ; it's good to be back home c'est agréable de rentrer chez soi or de se retrouver à la maison ; when is he due back? quand doit-il rentrer? ; to go back to reprendre [work] ; retourner en [France, China] ; retourner au [Canada, Japan] ; retourner à [Paris, museum, shop] ; the mini-skirt is back ( in fashion) les mini-jupes sont de nouveau à la mode ;
    2 ( in return) to call ou phone back rappeler ; I'll write back (to him) je lui répondrai ; he hasn't written back yet il n'a pas encore répondu ; ‘OK,’ he shouted back ‘OK,’ a-t-il répondu en criant ; to punch sb back rendre son coup à qn ; to smile back at sb rendre son sourire à qn ; he was rude back il a été aussi impoli avec moi que je l'avais été avec lui ; ⇒ answer ;
    3 (backwards, in a reverse direction) [glance, jump, step, lean] en arrière ;
    4 ( away) we overtook him 20 km back nous l'avons doublé il y a 20 km ; there's a garage 10 km back nous avons passé un garage à 10 km en arrière ;
    5 ( ago) 25 years back il y a 25 ans ; a week/five minutes back il y a une semaine/cinq minutes ;
    6 ( a long time ago) back in 1964/April en 1964/avril ; back before Easter/the revolution avant Pâques/la révolution ; back in the days when du temps où ; it was obvious as far back as last year/1985 that déjà l'année dernière/en 1985 il était évident que ; to go ou date back to remonter à [Roman times, 1700] ;
    7 ( once again) she's back in power/control elle a repris le pouvoir/les commandes ; Paul is back at the wheel Paul a repris le volant ; to get back to sleep se rendormir ; to go back home rentrer chez soi ; to go back to bed se recoucher ;
    8 ( nearer the beginning) ten lines back dix lignes plus haut ; ten pages back dix pages plus tôt or avant ;
    9 ( indicating return to sb's possession) to give/send sth back rendre/renvoyer qch (to à) ; to put sth back remettre qch ; I've got my books back on m'a rendu mes livres ; to get one's money back être remboursé ; he wants his dictionary back now il veut que tu lui rendes son dictionnaire tout de suite ;
    10 ( expressing a return to a former location) to travel to London and back faire l'aller-retour à Londres ; the journey to Madrid and back l'aller-retour à Madrid ; we walked there and took the train back nous y sommes allés à pied et nous avons pris le train pour rentrer ; how long will it take to drive back? combien de temps est-ce que ça prendra pour rentrer en voiture? ;
    11 ( in a different location) meanwhile, back in France, he… pendant ce temps, en France, il… ; back in the studio, recording had begun au studio, l'enregistrement avait commencé ; I'll see you back at the house/in the office je te verrai à la maison/au bureau.
    D back and forth adv phr to go ou travel back and forth ( commute) [person, bus] faire la navette (between entre) ; to walk ou go back and forth faire des allées et venues (between entre) ; to swing back and forth [pendulum] osciller ; to sway back and forth se balancer ; the film cuts ou moves back and forth between New York and Paris le film se passe entre New York et Paris.
    E vtr
    1 ( support) soutenir [candidate, party, person, bid, bill, action] ; appuyer [application] ; apporter son soutien à [enterprise, project] ; the strike is backed by the union le syndicat soutient la grève ; the junta is backed by the militia la junte est soutenue par la milice ;
    2 ( finance) financer [project, undertaking] ;
    3 ( endorse) garantir [currency] ; to back a bill Comm, Fin endosser, avaliser une traite ;
    4 ( substantiate) justifier [argument, claim] (with à l'aide de) ;
    5 ( reverse) faire reculer [horse] ; to back the car into the garage rentrer la voiture au garage en marche arrière ; to back sb into/against sth faire reculer qn dans/contre qch ; to back oars ou water déramer ;
    6 ( bet on) parier sur [horse, favourite, winner] ; to back a loser [race goer] miser sur un cheval perdant ; fig ( invest ill-advisedly) mal placer son argent ; ( support a lost cause) soutenir une cause perdue d'avance ; to back the wrong horse lit, fig miser sur le mauvais cheval ;
    7 (stiffen, line) consolider, renforcer [structure] ; endosser [book] ; renforcer, entoiler [map] ; maroufler [painting] ; doubler [fabric] ;
    8 Mus accompagner [singer, performer] ;
    9 Naut masquer, coiffer [sail].
    F vi
    1 ( reverse) faire marche arrière ;
    2 Naut [wind] changer de direction.
    G - backed (dans composés)
    1 ( of furniture) a high-/low-backed chair une chaise avec un dossier haut/bas ;
    2 (lined, stiffened) canvas-/foam-backed doublé de toile/de mousse ;
    3 ( supported) UN-backed soutenu par l'ONU ;
    4 ( financed) government-backed financé par l'État.
    to break the back of a journey/task faire le plus gros du voyage/travail. ⇒ beyond, duck, hand, own, scratch, wall.
    ■ back away reculer ; to back away from lit s'éloigner de [person, precipice] ; fig prendre ses distances par rapport à [issue, problem] ; chercher à éviter [confrontation].
    ■ back down:
    ▶ back down ( give way) céder ; you can't back down now tu ne peux pas céder maintenant ; to back down from chercher à éviter [confrontation] ; to back down on ou over reconsidérer [sanctions, proposal, allegations] ;
    ▶ back down [sth] [person] descendre [qch] à reculons [slope] ; [car] descendre [qch] en marche arrière [drive, hill].
    1 ( move away) reculer ;
    2 fig ( climb down) se montrer plus coopérant ; to back off over céder sur [issue, matter].
    ■ back onto:
    ▶ back onto [sth] [house] donner sur [qch] à l'arrière [fields, railway].
    ■ back out:
    1 ( come out backwards) [person] sortir à reculons ; [car, driver] sortir en marche arrière ; to back out of [person] sortir de [qch] en reculant [room] ; [car, driver] sortir de [qch] en marche arrière [garage, parking space] ;
    2 ( renege on) se désister, reculer ; to back out of annuler [deal, contract] ; [competitor, team] se retirer de [event] ;
    ▶ back [sth] out faire sortir [qch] en marche arrière [vehicle] ; to back the car out of the garage faire sortir la voiture du garage en marche arrière.
    ■ back up:
    ▶ back up
    1 ( reverse) [driver, vehicle] reculer, faire marche arrière ; back up a few metres recule de quelques mètres ;
    2 US ( block) [drains] s'obstruer ;
    3 US ( tail back) [traffic] se bloquer ;
    ▶ back [sth] up, back up [sth]
    1 ( support) [facts, evidence] confirmer [claims, case, theory] ;
    2 Comput sauvegarder [data, file] ;
    ▶ back [sb] up soutenir [person].

    Big English-French dictionary > back

  • 4 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 5 Chronology

      15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.
      400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.
      202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.
      137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.
      410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.
      714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.
      1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.
      1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.
      1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.
      1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.
      1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).
      1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.
      1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.
      1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.
      1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.
      1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.
      1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.
      1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.
      1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.
      1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.
      1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.
      1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.
      1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.
      1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.
      1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.
      1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.
      1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.
      1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).
      1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.
      1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.
      1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.
      1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.
       King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.
       King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.
      1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.
      1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.
      1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.
       Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.
       Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.
       Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.
      1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.
      1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.
      1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.
      1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.
      1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.
      1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.
      1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.
      1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.
      1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.
      1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.
      1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.
      1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.
      1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.
      1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.
      1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.
      1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.
      1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.
      1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.
      1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.
      1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.
      1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.
      1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.
      1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.
      1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.
      1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.
       Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.
       King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.
      1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of
       Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.
       Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.
       King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.
      1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.
      1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.
      1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.
      1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.
      1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.
      1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.
       January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.
       Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.
      1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.
      1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.
      1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.
      1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.
      1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.
       May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.
       March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.
       Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.
      1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.
      1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January
      1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.
      1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."
       28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.
       February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.
       April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.
      1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.
      1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."
      1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.
       6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.
       8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.
      1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.
      1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.
      1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
       January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.
      1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.
      1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.
      1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.
       March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.
       March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.
      1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July
      1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.
      1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).
      1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.
      1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.
       January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.
       January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.
       November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.
       October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.
       January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.
       May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.
       October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.
       January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).
       United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.
       January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.
       1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
       May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.
       June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.
       February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.
       January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.
       July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.
      2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology

  • 6 World War II

    (1939-1945)
       In the European phase of the war, neutral Portugal contributed more to the Allied victory than historians have acknowledged. Portugal experienced severe pressures to compromise her neutrality from both the Axis and Allied powers and, on several occasions, there were efforts to force Portugal to enter the war as a belligerent. Several factors lent Portugal importance as a neutral. This was especially the case during the period from the fall of France in June 1940 to the Allied invasion and reconquest of France from June to August 1944.
       In four respects, Portugal became briefly a modest strategic asset for the Allies and a war materiel supplier for both sides: the country's location in the southwesternmost corner of the largely German-occupied European continent; being a transport and communication terminus, observation post for spies, and crossroads between Europe, the Atlantic, the Americas, and Africa; Portugal's strategically located Atlantic islands, the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde archipelagos; and having important mines of wolfram or tungsten ore, crucial for the war industry for hardening steel.
       To maintain strict neutrality, the Estado Novo regime dominated by Antônio de Oliveira Salazar performed a delicate balancing act. Lisbon attempted to please and cater to the interests of both sets of belligerents, but only to the extent that the concessions granted would not threaten Portugal's security or its status as a neutral. On at least two occasions, Portugal's neutrality status was threatened. First, Germany briefly considered invading Portugal and Spain during 1940-41. A second occasion came in 1943 and 1944 as Great Britain, backed by the United States, pressured Portugal to grant war-related concessions that threatened Portugal's status of strict neutrality and would possibly bring Portugal into the war on the Allied side. Nazi Germany's plan ("Operation Felix") to invade the Iberian Peninsula from late 1940 into 1941 was never executed, but the Allies occupied and used several air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands.
       The second major crisis for Portugal's neutrality came with increasing Allied pressures for concessions from the summer of 1943 to the summer of 1944. Led by Britain, Portugal's oldest ally, Portugal was pressured to grant access to air and naval bases in the Azores Islands. Such bases were necessary to assist the Allies in winning the Battle of the Atlantic, the naval war in which German U-boats continued to destroy Allied shipping. In October 1943, following tedious negotiations, British forces began to operate such bases and, in November 1944, American forces were allowed to enter the islands. Germany protested and made threats, but there was no German attack.
       Tensions rose again in the spring of 1944, when the Allies demanded that Lisbon cease exporting wolfram to Germany. Salazar grew agitated, considered resigning, and argued that Portugal had made a solemn promise to Germany that wolfram exports would be continued and that Portugal could not break its pledge. The Portuguese ambassador in London concluded that the shipping of wolfram to Germany was "the price of neutrality." Fearing that a still-dangerous Germany could still attack Portugal, Salazar ordered the banning of the mining, sale, and exports of wolfram not only to Germany but to the Allies as of 6 June 1944.
       Portugal did not enter the war as a belligerent, and its forces did not engage in combat, but some Portuguese experienced directly or indirectly the impact of fighting. Off Portugal or near her Atlantic islands, Portuguese naval personnel or commercial fishermen rescued at sea hundreds of victims of U-boat sinkings of Allied shipping in the Atlantic. German U-boats sank four or five Portuguese merchant vessels as well and, in 1944, a U-boat stopped, boarded, searched, and forced the evacuation of a Portuguese ocean liner, the Serpa Pinto, in mid-Atlantic. Filled with refugees, the liner was not sunk but several passengers lost their lives and the U-boat kidnapped two of the ship's passengers, Portuguese Americans of military age, and interned them in a prison camp. As for involvement in a theater of war, hundreds of inhabitants were killed and wounded in remote East Timor, a Portuguese colony near Indonesia, which was invaded, annexed, and ruled by Japanese forces between February 1942 and August 1945. In other incidents, scores of Allied military planes, out of fuel or damaged in air combat, crashed or were forced to land in neutral Portugal. Air personnel who did not survive such crashes were buried in Portuguese cemeteries or in the English Cemetery, Lisbon.
       Portugal's peripheral involvement in largely nonbelligerent aspects of the war accelerated social, economic, and political change in Portugal's urban society. It strengthened political opposition to the dictatorship among intellectual and working classes, and it obliged the regime to bolster political repression. The general economic and financial status of Portugal, too, underwent improvements since creditor Britain, in order to purchase wolfram, foods, and other materials needed during the war, became indebted to Portugal. When Britain repaid this debt after the war, Portugal was able to restore and expand its merchant fleet. Unlike most of Europe, ravaged by the worst war in human history, Portugal did not suffer heavy losses of human life, infrastructure, and property. Unlike even her neighbor Spain, badly shaken by its terrible Civil War (1936-39), Portugal's immediate postwar condition was more favorable, especially in urban areas, although deep-seated poverty remained.
       Portugal experienced other effects, especially during 1939-42, as there was an influx of about a million war refugees, an infestation of foreign spies and other secret agents from 60 secret intelligence services, and the residence of scores of international journalists who came to report the war from Lisbon. There was also the growth of war-related mining (especially wolfram and tin). Portugal's media eagerly reported the war and, by and large, despite government censorship, the Portuguese print media favored the Allied cause. Portugal's standard of living underwent some improvement, although price increases were unpopular.
       The silent invasion of several thousand foreign spies, in addition to the hiring of many Portuguese as informants and spies, had fascinating outcomes. "Spyland" Portugal, especially when Portugal was a key point for communicating with occupied Europe (1940-44), witnessed some unusual events, and spying for foreigners at least briefly became a national industry. Until mid-1944, when Allied forces invaded France, Portugal was the only secure entry point from across the Atlantic to Europe or to the British Isles, as well as the escape hatch for refugees, spies, defectors, and others fleeing occupied Europe or Vichy-controlled Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Through Portugal by car, ship, train, or scheduled civil airliner one could travel to and from Spain or to Britain, or one could leave through Portugal, the westernmost continental country of Europe, to seek refuge across the Atlantic in the Americas.
       The wartime Portuguese scene was a colorful melange of illegal activities, including espionage, the black market, war propaganda, gambling, speculation, currency counterfeiting, diamond and wolfram smuggling, prostitution, and the drug and arms trade, and they were conducted by an unusual cast of characters. These included refugees, some of whom were spies, smugglers, diplomats, and business people, many from foreign countries seeking things they could find only in Portugal: information, affordable food, shelter, and security. German agents who contacted Allied sailors in the port of Lisbon sought to corrupt and neutralize these men and, if possible, recruit them as spies, and British intelligence countered this effort. Britain's MI-6 established a new kind of "safe house" to protect such Allied crews from German espionage and venereal disease infection, an approved and controlled house of prostitution in Lisbon's bairro alto district.
       Foreign observers and writers were impressed with the exotic, spy-ridden scene in Lisbon, as well as in Estoril on the Sun Coast (Costa do Sol), west of Lisbon harbor. What they observed appeared in noted autobiographical works and novels, some written during and some after the war. Among notable writers and journalists who visited or resided in wartime Portugal were Hungarian writer and former communist Arthur Koestler, on the run from the Nazi's Gestapo; American radio broadcaster-journalist Eric Sevareid; novelist and Hollywood script-writer Frederick Prokosch; American diplomat George Kennan; Rumanian cultural attache and later scholar of mythology Mircea Eliade; and British naval intelligence officer and novelist-to-be Ian Fleming. Other notable visiting British intelligence officers included novelist Graham Greene; secret Soviet agent in MI-6 and future defector to the Soviet Union Harold "Kim" Philby; and writer Malcolm Muggeridge. French letters were represented by French writer and airman, Antoine Saint-Exupery and French playwright, Jean Giroudoux. Finally, Aquilino Ribeiro, one of Portugal's premier contemporary novelists, wrote about wartime Portugal, including one sensational novel, Volframio, which portrayed the profound impact of the exploitation of the mineral wolfram on Portugal's poor, still backward society.
       In Estoril, Portugal, the idea for the world's most celebrated fictitious spy, James Bond, was probably first conceived by Ian Fleming. Fleming visited Portugal several times after 1939 on Naval Intelligence missions, and later he dreamed up the James Bond character and stories. Background for the early novels in the James Bond series was based in part on people and places Fleming observed in Portugal. A key location in Fleming's first James Bond novel, Casino Royale (1953) is the gambling Casino of Estoril. In addition, one aspect of the main plot, the notion that a spy could invent "secret" intelligence for personal profit, was observed as well by the British novelist and former MI-6 officer, while engaged in operations in wartime Portugal. Greene later used this information in his 1958 spy novel, Our Man in Havana, as he observed enemy agents who fabricated "secrets" for money.
       Thus, Portugal's World War II experiences introduced the country and her people to a host of new peoples, ideas, products, and influences that altered attitudes and quickened the pace of change in this quiet, largely tradition-bound, isolated country. The 1943-45 connections established during the Allied use of air and naval bases in Portugal's Azores Islands were a prelude to Portugal's postwar membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > World War II

  • 7 Introduction

       Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.
       Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.
       Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.
       Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).
       Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.
       Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.
       LAND AND PEOPLE
       The Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).
       For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.
       Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into the
       Atlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.
       Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:
       1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)
       1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)
       1864 4,287,000 first census
       1890 5,049,700
       1900 5,423,000
       1911 5,960,000
       1930 6,826,000
       1940 7,185,143
       1950 8,510,000
       1960 8,889,000
       1970 8,668,000* note decrease
       1980 9,833,000
       1991 9,862,540
       1996 9,934,100
       2006 10,642,836
       2010 10,710,000 (estimated)

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Introduction

  • 8 East Timor

       Colony of Portugal from the 16th century to December 1975, with an area of 40,000 square kilometers (18,989 square miles). East Timor is located on the eastern portion of the island of Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. From 1975 to August 1999, when it was forcibly annexed and occupied by Indonesia, until May 2002, when it achieved full independence, East Timor was, in effect, a ward of the United Nations.
       In the 16th century, the Portuguese established trading posts on the island, but for centuries few Portuguese settled there, and the "colony" remained isolated and neglected. After the Dutch won control of Indonesia, there was a territorial dispute with Portugal as to who "owned" what on the island of Timor. In 1859, this question was decided as the Dutch and Portuguese governments formally divided the island into a Dutch portion (west) and the Portuguese colony (east) and established the frontier. From the late 19th century to World War I, Portugal consolidated its control of East Timor by means of military campaigns against the Timorese tribes. In addition to colonial officials, a few Portuguese missionaries and merchants occupied East Timor, but few Portuguese ever settled there.
       East Timor's geographic location close to the north coast of Australia and its sharing of one island in the Dutch colony catapulted it into world affairs early in World War II. To forestall a Japanese invasion of Timor, a joint Dutch-Australian expedition landed on 17 December 1941; the Portuguese authorities neither resisted nor cooperated. In February 1942, when Japanese troops landed in Timor, the small allied force fled to the hills and later was evacuated to Australia. Japan occupied all of Timor and the remainder of the Dutch East Indies until Japan's surrender in September 1945. Portugal soon reassumed control.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, East Timorese nationalist parties hoped for rapid decolonization and independence with Lisbon's cooperation. But on 28 November 1975, before a preoccupied Portugal could work out a formal transfer of power, the Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor (FRETILIN), then in control of the former colony's capital, declared independence, and, on 7 December 1975, Indonesian armed forces swiftly invaded, occupied, and annexed East Timor. In the following years, a tragic loss of life occurred. Portugal refused to recognize Indonesia's sovereignty over East Timor and claimed legal sovereignty before the United Nations.
       As Indonesia persistently and brutally suppressed Timorese nationalist resistance, world media attention focused on this still remote island. Several sensational international and Indonesian events altered the status of occupied East Timor, following the continuation of FRETILIN guerrilla resistance. In November 1991, world media disseminated information on the Indonesian forces' slaughter of East Timorese protesters at a cemetery demonstration in the capital of Dili. In 1996, two East Timorese, Bishop Belo and José Ramos Horta, each a symbol of East Timorese resistance and the desire for independence, shared the Nobel Peace Prize. Then, in 1998, in Indonesia, the Suharto regime collapsed and was replaced by a more democratic government, which in January 1999 pledged a free referendum in East Timor. On 30 August 1999, the referendum was held, and nearly 80 percent of the East Timorese voters voted for independence from Indonesia.
       However, Indonesian armed forces and militias reacted brutally, using intimidation, murder, mayhem, and razing of buildings to try to reverse the people's will. Following some weeks of confusion, a United Nations (UN) armed forces, led by Australia, took control of East Timor and declared it a UN protectorate, to last until East Timor was secure from Indonesian aggression and prepared for full independence. East Timor had changed from a Portuguese colony to an Indonesian protectorate/colony to a fledgling nation-in-the-making.
       The status of East Timor as a ward of the UN was made official on 25 October 1999, as the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor began to prepare the country for independence. Appalling conditions prevailed: 70 percent of the country's buildings had been destroyed and nearly half of the population of 800,000 had been driven out of East Timor into uneasy refuge in West Timor, under Indonesian control. A territory without an economy, East Timor lacked police, civil servants, schools, and government records.
       With UN assistance, general elections were held in the spring of 2002; the majority of parliamentary seats were won by FRETILIN, and José "Xanana" Gusmão was elected the first president. On 20 May 2002, East Timor became independent. World luminaries adorned the independence celebrations: UN secretary-general Kofi Annan, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, and other celebrities attended. But East Timor's travails continued with civil strife and uncertainty.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > East Timor

  • 9 register

    ˈredʒɪstə
    1. сущ.
    1) а) бортовой, школьный, регистрационный и т. п. журнал (любой вид журнала, досье и т. п., куда заносятся в формальном порядке любые факты, считающиеся важными) ;
    учетная книга to keep a register ≈ вести журнал burial register ≈ похоронная книга a register of births, marriages and deaths ≈ книга записей актов гражданского состояния (т. е. рождения, брака и смерти) hotel register ≈ книга записи постояльцев (в гостинице) Syn: book
    1., journal б) официальный список, реестр;
    перечень( различных важных вещей, лиц, событий и т. п.) to discover by the register ≈ обнаружить по списку to call the register ≈ вызывать по списку a civil service register ≈ список государственных служащих ∙ Syn: list I
    1., catalogue
    1.
    2) шотл. записи публичного или законодательного характера;
    свод предписаний Syn: record
    1.
    3) сл. лицо( особ. красноречиво говорящее о настроении, мыслях и т. п. его обладателя) Syn: face
    1.
    4) а) запись;
    заметка;
    помета( письменная фиксация факта, тж. сделанная где угодно с какой угодно целью) the register of a marriage/birth ≈ запись о бракосочетании, рождении Syn: record
    1., mark II
    1., entry
    6) б) регистрация;
    запись Syn: registration, registry
    5) редк. о людях или объектах, занесенных в какой-л. список, и им определяемых а) зарегистрированный моряк Syn: seaman б) зарегистрированное судно, корабль Syn: ship
    1., vessel в) персона, обладающая правом голоса в муниципальных выборах или Парламенте
    6) а) муз. регистр (голоса, инструмента - особ. органа и т. п.) Syn: compass
    1., stop
    1. б) лингв. регистр, стиль;
    уровень( произношения, чистоты речи и т. п.) Syn: level
    1. в) фон. ларингальный
    7) а) иск. часть( цельной композиции), элемент( диптиха, триптиха), скульптурная группа( как часть композиции) и т. п. б) группа, кучка (людей, объектов и т. д.)
    8) а) тех. счетный механизм, счетчик;
    калькулятор Syn: indicator, calculator б) показания счетчика;
    результат подсчета на калькуляторе Syn: number
    1., quantity
    9) компьют., вчт. ячейка памяти для хранения временной информации Syn: location
    10) заслонка, задвижка( в печи, камине и т. п.)
    11) полигр. приводка( точное нанесение соседствующих цветовых участков на лист) in, out of register ≈ неточно приведенные, с наложениями (о цветах в печати) Syn: adjustment, superimposition ∙ register plate cash register
    2. гл.
    1) а) регистрировать( брак, рождение и т. п.), делать соответствующую официальную запись In former times, only property owners could be registered as voters. ≈ В прежние времена голосовать могли только землевладельцы. Syn: enter
    1., record
    2. б) заносить в список( особ. студентов, избирателей т. п.) Syn: enroll в) отмечать, записывать;
    показывать (тж. о приборе) Syn: note
    2., indicate
    2) (тж. to register oneself) а) регистрироваться, прописываться, отмечаться( где-л., особ. амер. - в гостинице и т. п.) registered at the hotel ≈ зарегистрировались в гостинице б) записываться( как избиратель, студент и т. д.) She registered as a Republican. ≈ Она записалась в республиканцы. Syn: enroll
    3) а) разг. выражать, передавать (образ и т. п. - об актере и т. д.) ;
    показывать (какие-л. эмоции и т. п.) ;
    убедительно играть роль ((up) on, with) A surprise that he was unable to hide registered on his face. ≈ На его лице отразилось удивление, которого он не мог скрыть. even that didn't register ≈ даже это не возымело эффект/не было достаточно убедительно Syn: express
    4. б) запечатлеваться, отмечаться ( особым выражением лица) disgust registered on her face ≈ на ее лице появилась гримаса отвращения ∙ Syn: express
    4., indicate
    4) а) тех. подгонять, пригонять с высокой точностью;
    полигр. делать приводку Syn: adjust б) соответствовать, подходить, (точно) совпадать the parts register perfectly ≈ детали совпадают точно в) воен. пристреливаться( по реперу) ;
    производить центровку to register fire ≈ пристреливать орудие Syn: align
    5) а) регистрировать багаж (сдавать его на хранение под расписку, квитанцию и т. п.) we registered our luggage while checking in ≈ мы сдали свои вещи в багаж во время регистрации б) отправлять (письмо) заказным ∙ they register an impressive victory ≈ на их счету убедительная победа Syn: send, prepay
    6) записать на свой счет, в свой актив;
    добиться, достигнуть( победы, рекорда и т. п.) Syn: achieve журнал (записей), реестр;
    метрическая книга - ship's * (морское) судовой регистр - a * of births, marriages and deaths книга записей актов гражданского состояния /рождения, брака и смерти/ - parish * приходская книга записей актов гражданского состояния официальный список, реестр, опись;
    ведомость - * of properties земельный реестр, земельный кадастр - a civil service * список государственных служащих - * of electors список избирателей( в Великобритании) (историческое) сборник образцов судебных документов запись - * of interment запись о погребении - it is worth * and preservation это стоит записать и сохранить регистратор, протоколист( специальное) регистр (музыкальное) регистр, группа труб одинакового тембра (в органе) регистр, участок звукового диапазона - chest * грудной регистр (техническое) счетчик;
    накопитель;
    регистрирующий механизм, самозаписывающий прибор (техническое) заслонка, задвижка (техническое) отдушина (полиграфия) приводка ленточка-закладка (в книге) регистрировать;
    вносить в список - to * one's car зарегистрировать автомобиль( with, for) регистрироваться, зарегистрироваться;
    отметиться где-л.;
    записаться на что-л. - to * (oneself) at a hotel (американизм) записать свое имя в книгу постояльцев в гостинице - to * for service стать на военный учет - to * for a course записаться на курс( обучения) - to * with the police зарегистрироваться в полиции - * with us the address to which your letters are to be forwarded оставьте нам адрес, по которому можно будет пересылать ваши письма вносить свое имя в список избирателей (тж. to * oneself on the voting-list) запоминать, отмечать - to * a name запомнить фамилию запоминаться, производить впечатление - the name didn't * фамилия не запомнилась;
    эта фамилия ничего( нам) не говорит показывать, отмечать, регистрировать (о приборе) - the thermometer *ed 34 F термометр показывал 34 градуса по Фаренгейту (разговорное) выражать, показывать - her face *ed surprise на ее лице было написано изумление - a face that *s great strength of character лицо, которое говорит о большой силе характера сдавать под расписку, квитанцию ( багаж и т. п.) - our luggage was *ed мы сдали свои вещи в багаж отправлять (письмо) заказным добиться, записать на свой счет - they * an impressive victory на их счету убедительная победа точно прилаживать, подгонять - to * every part as perfectly as possible точно подогнать все части( военное) пристреливаться по реперу - to * fire пристреливать (орудие) соответствовать, подходить, (точно) совпадать - the holes * perfectly отверстия точно совпадают (полиграфия) делать приводку accumulator ~ вчт. накапливающий регистр accumulator ~ вчт. сумматор activity ~ вчт. регистр активности address ~ вчт. регистр адреса army ~ амер. список офицерского состава армии base ~ вчт. базовый регистр base-bound ~ вчт. регистр защиты памяти base-limit ~ вчт. регистр защиты памяти ~ журнал (записей) ;
    официальный список;
    опись;
    реестр;
    метрическая книга;
    to be on the register амер. находиться под подозрением;
    быть взятым на заметку bond ~ журнал регистрации сделок с облигациями bound ~ вчт. ограничительный регистр boundary ~ вчт. регистр границы buffer ~ вчт. буферный регистр cadastral ~ земельная регистрация cadastral ~ недв. кадастр cadastral ~ опись и оценка землевладений capital expenditure ~ книга учета капиталовложений capital stock ~ книга записи акций ~ тех. счетчик, счетный механизм;
    cash register кассовый аппарат cash ~ кассовый аппарат, касса cash ~ кассовый аппарат cash ~ кассовый журнал charges ~ журнал учета долговых обязательств charges ~ книга записей удержания имущества check ~ контрольный регистр cheque abuse ~ регистр поддельных чеков church ~ церковная регистрационная книга circulating ~ вчт. сдвиговый регистр civil ~ книга записи актов гражданского состояния commercial ~ регистр коммерческих фирм commercial ~ торговый реестр company ~ реестр компаний current address ~ вчт. счетчик команд current instruction ~ вчт. регистр команды data ~ вчт. регистр данных data-limit ~ вчт. регистр защиты памяти datum-limit ~ вчт. регистр защиты памяти deeds ~ журнал учета документов doorbell ~ вчт. сигнальный регистр electoral ~ список избирателей extension ~ вчт. регистр расширения ~ разг. выражать;
    показывать;
    his face registered no emotion его лицо оставалось невозмутимым index ~ док. индексный регистр indexed ~ вчт. индексный регистр industrial ~ промышленный регистр instruction ~ вчт. регистр команды judgment ~ журнал записи судебных решений land charges ~ регистр земельных налогов land charges ~ регистр налогов с земельной собственности land ~ земельная регистрация land ~ кадастр land ~ опись и оценка землевладений land ~ поземельный реестр marine ~ морской реестр ~ of births, marriages and deaths книга записей рождений, браков и смертей master ~ основной журнал учета national ~ система учета населения (Великобритания) parish ~ метрическая книга pattern ~ вчт. регистр выбора конфигурации property ~ журнал учета имущества proprietorship ~ реестр права собственности real estate ~ реестр недвижимого имущества real estate ~ реестр недвижимости register вносить в кадастр ~ вносить в реестр ~ вносить в список ~ разг. выражать;
    показывать;
    his face registered no emotion его лицо оставалось невозмутимым ~ журнал (записей) ;
    официальный список;
    опись;
    реестр;
    метрическая книга;
    to be on the register амер. находиться под подозрением;
    быть взятым на заметку ~ журнал ~ журнал записей ~ заносить в книгу ~ запечатлевать( - ся) ~ записывать ~ запись (в журнале и т. п.) ~ запись ~ запоминать ~ зарегистрировать ~ заслонка (в печи и т. п.) ~ метрическая книга ~ опись ~ отмечать ~ официальный список ~ подгонять ~ показывать, отмечать, регистрировать (о приборе) ~ показывать ~ посылать заказное письмо или заказную бандероль ~ полигр. приводка ~ вчт. регистр ~ регистр ~ муз. регистр ~ регистратор ~ регистрировать(ся), заносить в книгу, реестр, список, регистр ~ регистрировать(ся) ;
    заносить в список ~ регистрировать ~ реестр, список, регистр, указатель, книга, журнал записей, метрическая книга ~ реестр ~ сдавать багаж ~ сдавать на хранение( багаж) ~ совмещать ~ соответствовать ~ судья по делам о наследстве и опеке (в некоторых штатах США) ~ счетчик ~ тех. счетчик, счетный механизм;
    cash register кассовый аппарат ~ точно прилаживать ~ точно совпадать ~ указатель ~ чиновник-архивариус ~ чиновник-регистратор;
    архивариус Register: Register: Title ~ юр. реестр титулов register: register: trade ~ торговый реестр ~ in domestic ~ заносить во внутренний реестр ~ of associations and societies справочник ассоциаций и обществ ~ of births, marriages and deaths книга записей рождений, браков и смертей ~ of business names справочник названий фирм ~ of charges книга записей долговых обязательств ~ of companies регистр компаний ~ of companies справочник компаний ~ of convictions книга записей обвинительных приговоров ~ of debtors список должников ~ of deeds реестр судебных документов ~ of electors список избирателей ~ of land charges книга учета земельных долговых обязательств ~ of land charges книга учета сборов за землепользование ~ of marriages книга записей браков ~ of members акционерный регистр ~ of members список акционеров ~ of members список членов ~ of mortgages список закладных ~ of mortgages and monetary charges список закладных и денежных платежей ~ of offers список предложений ~ of patents патентный реестр ~ of persons список лиц ~ of real estate регистр недвижимости ~ of real property регистр недвижимого имущества ~ of shareholders акционерный регистр ~ of shareholders список акционеров ~ of ships судовой регистр ~ of small ships регистр малых судов ~ of taxpayers список налогоплательщиков ~ of title регистр правовых титулов to ~ oneself вносить свое имя в список избирателей to ~ oneself зарегистрироваться, отметиться ~ to do business as foreign corporation зарегистрировать предприятие как иностранную корпорацию ~ office = registry registry: registry внесение в регистр ~ журнал записей, реестр ~ журнал записей ~ классификационное свидетельство ~ книга для записей, реестр, регистр ~ отдел записей актов гражданского состояния ~ регистратура;
    отдел записей актов гражданского состояния (тж. registry office) ;
    servants' registry бюро по приисканию мест для прислуги ~ регистратура;
    отдел записи актов гражданского состояния ~ регистратура ~ регистрационная запись ~ регистрация, регистрирование;
    регистрационная запись ~ регистрация ~ реестр ~ судебная канцелярия share ~ акционерный регистр share ~ книга акционеров shift ~ вчт. сдвиговый регистр ship's ~ судовой регистр stepping ~ вчт. сдвиговый регистр systematic ~ система систематического учета register: trade ~ торговый реестр

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > register

  • 10 situation

    ˌsɪtjuˈeɪʃən сущ.
    1) обстановка, положение, ситуация, состояние to accept a situation ≈ мириться с положением/ситуацией to come out of a difficult situation with credit ≈ с честью выйти из трудного положения to comprehend, grasp, take in a situation ≈ понимать положение, вникать в положение/в ситуацию awkward situation crisis situation emergency situation critical situation delicate situation desperate situation embarrassing situation explosive situation fluid situation hopeless situation international situation world situation no-win situation life-and-death situation political situation
    2) место, местоположение (здания, города и т. п.) Syn: position
    1., location
    3) служба, должность, место to be out of a situation ≈ быть безработным situations vacant, situations wanted ≈ вакансии заголовок газетного раздела о свободных вакансиях Syn: post III, job II
    1. ситуация, обстановка, положение (дел) - financial * финансовое положение - ice * (метеорология) ледовая обстановка - price * (экономика) уровень цен - the * at the front положение на фронте - * map (военное) карта обстановки - let me know how the * stands дайте мне знать, как обстоят дела состояние, положение - (to be) in an awkward * (находиться) в неловком положении - to barge into an unpleasant * (разговорное) влипнуть в неприятную историю (литературоведение) момент, сцена;
    ситуация - dramatic * драматический момент - the drama is full of exciting *s драма изобилует захватывающими эпизодами место, служба, работа - the * of a servant место слуги - to find a * найти место;
    устроиться на место - in one's former * на месте прежней службы социальное положение - (one's) subordinate * (чье-либо) подчиненное положение местность - the farm stands in a fine * ферма расположена в прекрасной местности - the place is unrivalled for its * место славится природными условиями - a pleasant * приятное место местоположение, расположение - the * of a house местоположение дома - commanding * господствующее положение( разговорное) одно из трех первых мест (на скачках) ~ положение, обстановка, состояние, ситуация;
    to come out of a difficult situation with credit с честью выйти из трудного положения competitive ~ состояние конкуренции conflict ~ вчт. конфликтная ситуация critical ~ критическая ситуация earnings ~ ситуация с доходами economic ~ состояние экономики economic ~ экономическая конъюнктура economic ~ экономическая ситуация employment ~ положение на рынке труда exchange ~ ситуация на валютном рынке export ~ положение на экспортном рынке failure ~ вчт. сбойная ситуация financial ~ финансовая ситуация ~ служба, должность, место (особ. о прислуге) ;
    to find a situation найти работу, устроиться на место foreign exchange ~ положение на валютном рынке foreign exchange ~ состояние валютного рынка income ~ состояние доходов interest rate ~ состояние ставки процента liquidity ~ состояние ликвидности market ~ положение на рынке market ~ рыночная конъюнктура market ~ состояние рынка price ~ состояние цен queueing ~ вчт. условия образования очереди sales ~ рыночная конъюнктура situation место службы ~ местоположение, место ~ обстановка ~ положение, обстановка, состояние, ситуация;
    to come out of a difficult situation with credit с честью выйти из трудного положения ~ положение, обстановка, состояние, ситуация ~ положение дел ~ работа ~ ситуация ~ служба, должность, место (особ. о прислуге) ;
    to find a situation найти работу, устроиться на место ~ служба, должность, место (особ. о прислуге) ~ социальное положение ~ of conflict состояние конфликта tangled ~ запутанная ситуация tangled ~ сложная ситуация tight economic ~ напряженная экономическая ситуация uncertain ~ неопределенная ситуация war-like ~ положение, подобное военному

    Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > situation

  • 11 part

    I
    1) часть; доля
    2) отделять(ся); разделять(ся); расчленять
    3) компонент; элемент
    •
    -
    2D part
    -
    3D part
    -
    accepted part
    -
    actuated part
    -
    address part
    -
    assembly defective part
    -
    basic part
    -
    bearing part
    -
    blank part
    -
    bottom part
    -
    case-shaped part
    -
    change part
    -
    chucked part
    -
    chuck part
    -
    clamped part
    -
    common parts
    -
    completed part
    -
    complex part
    -
    component part
    -
    conductive part
    -
    critical part
    -
    current part
    -
    discrete part
    -
    egg-box palletized part
    -
    electronic part
    -
    embedded parts
    -
    exchange cylinder cam part
    -
    exponent part
    -
    exterior part
    -
    fabricated parts
    -
    facsimile part
    -
    failed part
    -
    family-related parts
    -
    faulty part
    -
    female part
    -
    finished part
    -
    fixed part
    -
    former part
    -
    fractional part
    -
    function part
    -
    functional part
    -
    half-done part
    -
    hand-fed parts
    -
    high-load part
    -
    high-precision part
    -
    imaginary part
    -
    incoming part
    -
    integral part
    -
    interchangeable parts
    -
    intolerance part
    -
    linear part
    -
    load-bearing part
    -
    locating part
    -
    location part
    -
    machined part
    -
    makeup part
    -
    male part
    -
    master part
    -
    mating docking part
    -
    mating part
    -
    milled part
    -
    minor part
    -
    miscellaneous part
    -
    multiple parts
    -
    multiple-diameter part
    -
    NC machine part
    -
    negative real part
    -
    non-FMS part
    -
    nonrotational part
    -
    odd-shaped part
    -
    one-of-a-kind parts
    -
    open tolerance part
    -
    operation operator part
    -
    operation part
    -
    out-of-tolerance part
    -
    oversize part
    -
    pallet-fixtured part
    -
    parts of triangle
    -
    prefabricated part
    -
    prefab part
    -
    pressed part
    -
    pressurized fuselage part
    -
    primary part
    -
    prismatic part
    -
    protective stock part
    -
    prototype part
    -
    purchased part
    -
    quality-checked part
    -
    real part
    -
    rejected part
    -
    removable part
    -
    repair part
    -
    replacement part
    -
    rotary part
    -
    rough part
    -
    routing part
    -
    sample part
    -
    scalar part
    -
    scored part
    -
    sealing part
    -
    semicompleted part
    -
    shaft part
    -
    single-diameter part
    -
    spare part
    -
    stationary part
    -
    stepped part
    -
    stress relieved part
    -
    top quality part
    -
    turned part
    -
    twisted garment part
    -
    undersize part
    -
    unpressurized fuselage part
    -
    user part
    -
    vectorial part
    -
    warranty claim part
    -
    wearing part
    -
    wear-resisting part
    -
    work part
    -
    worn-out part
    II сокр. от
    partition

    Англо-русский словарь технических терминов > part

  • 12 plate

    1) плитка; пластина; планка
    5) гальваническое покрытие || наносить гальваническое покрытие; плакировать
    6) табличка (напр. на станке)
    •
    - adapter plate
    - adjustable angle plate
    - adjusting plate
    - adjustment plate
    - anchor plate
    - angle plate
    - angle tooling plate
    - angled plate
    - armor plate
    - attachment plate
    - back plate
    - backing plate
    - back-up plate
    - baffle plate
    - ball plate
    - ball-bearing plate
    - base plate with tray
    - base plate
    - bearing plate
    - bed plate
    - bench plate
    - bent plate
    - bevel-indexing plate
    - blow plate
    - bolster plate
    - bottom plate
    - box angle plate
    - brake plate
    - breakaway plate
    - bridge plate
    - bush plate
    - bushing plate
    - cam plate
    - cap plate
    - captivating plate
    - carrier plate
    - catch plate
    - center plate
    - check plate
    - chip breaker plate
    - chuck adapter plate
    - chuck mounting plate
    - chuck plate
    - circular face plate
    - circular plate
    - clamp plate
    - clamping plate
    - closing plate
    - cluster plate
    - clutch plate
    - collar plate
    - compensator plate
    - conical entrance orifice plate
    - contact plate
    - cover plate
    - crank plate
    - curved guide plate
    - cutoff plate
    - cutter plate
    - cutting plate
    - cutting speed chart plate
    - damper plate
    - data plate
    - deflection plate
    - dial plate
    - die plate
    - direct indexing plate
    - dished plate
    - distance plate
    - dividing plate
    - division plate
    - docking plate
    - dog plate
    - double-access angle plate
    - draw plate
    - drawing plate
    - dressing plate
    - drill-bushing plate
    - drive plate
    - dump plate
    - eccentric orifice plate
    - ejector plate
    - electrode plate
    - end plate
    - face plate
    - feed index plate
    - feed range plate
    - fence plate
    - fill plate
    - fixture adapter plate
    - fixture dial plate
    - fixture plate
    - flange plate
    - flitch plate
    - floor plate
    - flooring plate
    - formed plate
    - former plate
    - foundation plate
    - friction plate
    - gang-tool fixture plate
    - geared plate
    - grid plate
    - grinding plate
    - gripping plate
    - ground plate
    - grounded plate
    - guard plate
    - guide plate
    - gusset joint plate
    - gusset plate
    - high-division index plate
    - high-number indexing plate
    - holding plate
    - hole plate
    - horizontal face plate
    - identification plate
    - index plate
    - indexing hole plate
    - indexing plate
    - indicator plate
    - inserter plate
    - inspection plate
    - intermediate gear plate
    - intermediate plate
    - jaw plate
    - jig plate
    - joint plate
    - jointing plate
    - junction plate
    - keeper plate
    - knee plate
    - laminated plate
    - lap plate
    - lapping plate
    - lattice plate
    - laying-out plate
    - layout plate
    - legend plate
    - link plate
    - locator plate
    - locking plate
    - magazine plate
    - magnetic holding plate
    - magnetic plate
    - marking-off plate
    - master plate
    - match plate
    - microsine plate
    - motor-mounting plate
    - mounting plate
    - multihole index plate
    - name plate
    - notch plate
    - number plate
    - oblique plate
    - orifice plate
    - packing plate
    - partition plate
    - pattern plate
    - pin-link plate
    - pintle plate
    - pivot plate
    - planer's plate
    - pressure plate
    - printing plate
    - punch plate
    - quadrant plate
    - rapid index plate
    - rapping plate
    - rating plate
    - reference plate
    - rest plate
    - retainer plate
    - reverse plate
    - reversible cutting plate
    - revolving base plate
    - ring plate
    - rivet back plate
    - robot plate
    - roller link plate
    - rotary plate
    - saw plate
    - scanning plate
    - scraper plate
    - screw plate
    - scribing plate
    - scroll plate
    - segmental orifice plate
    - setup plate
    - shaft access hole sealing plate
    - shaped location plate
    - shoulder plate
    - side plate
    - sine plate
    - single-face angle plate
    - slide plate
    - slotted crank plate
    - small face plate
    - sole plate
    - space plate
    - spacer plate
    - speed index plate
    - speed indicator plate
    - speed range plate
    - spoiler plate
    - spring plate
    - standard tooling plate
    - stationary floor plate
    - stationary plate
    - stator cover plate
    - steel plate
    - stiffening plate
    - stripper plate
    - stripping plate
    - sub plate
    - support plate
    - supporting plate
    - surface plate
    - swash plate
    - swivel head plate
    - swivel plate
    - target plate
    - test plate
    - throttle plate
    - thrust plate
    - tin plate
    - tinned plate
    - tooling plate
    - toolmaker's surface plate
    - tool-mounting plate
    - top plate
    - tracing-up plate
    - trammel plate
    - T-slot face plate
    - tube plate
    - turn plate
    - turret base plate
    - turret plate
    - universal face plate
    - vee plate
    - vent-hole plate
    - vertical face plate
    - wear plate
    - wire-mesh plate
    - wobble plate
    - wrist plate

    English-Russian dictionary of mechanical engineering and automation > plate

  • 13 Catholic church

       The Catholic Church and the Catholic religion together represent the oldest and most enduring of all Portuguese institutions. Because its origins as an institution go back at least to the middle of the third century, if not earlier, the Christian and later the Catholic Church is much older than any other Portuguese institution or major cultural influence, including the monarchy (lasting 770 years) or Islam (540 years). Indeed, it is older than Portugal (869 years) itself. The Church, despite its changing doctrine and form, dates to the period when Roman Lusitania was Christianized.
       In its earlier period, the Church played an important role in the creation of an independent Portuguese monarchy, as well as in the colonization and settlement of various regions of the shifting Christian-Muslim frontier as it moved south. Until the rise of absolutist monarchy and central government, the Church dominated all public and private life and provided the only education available, along with the only hospitals and charity institutions. During the Middle Ages and the early stage of the overseas empire, the Church accumulated a great deal of wealth. One historian suggests that, by 1700, one-third of the land in Portugal was owned by the Church. Besides land, Catholic institutions possessed a large number of chapels, churches and cathedrals, capital, and other property.
       Extensive periods of Portuguese history witnessed either conflict or cooperation between the Church as the monarchy increasingly sought to gain direct control of the realm. The monarchy challenged the great power and wealth of the Church, especially after the acquisition of the first overseas empire (1415-1580). When King João III requested the pope to allow Portugal to establish the Inquisition (Holy Office) in the country and the request was finally granted in 1531, royal power, more than religion was the chief concern. The Inquisition acted as a judicial arm of the Catholic Church in order to root out heresies, primarily Judaism and Islam, and later Protestantism. But the Inquisition became an instrument used by the crown to strengthen its power and jurisdiction.
       The Church's power and prestige in governance came under direct attack for the first time under the Marquis of Pombal (1750-77) when, as the king's prime minister, he placed regalism above the Church's interests. In 1759, the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, although they were allowed to return after Pombal left office. Pombal also harnessed the Inquisition and put in place other anticlerical measures. With the rise of liberalism and the efforts to secularize Portugal after 1820, considerable Church-state conflict occurred. The new liberal state weakened the power and position of the Church in various ways: in 1834, all religious orders were suppressed and their property confiscated both in Portugal and in the empire and, in the 1830s and 1840s, agrarian reform programs confiscated and sold large portions of Church lands. By the 1850s, Church-state relations had improved, various religious orders were allowed to return, and the Church's influence was largely restored. By the late 19th century, Church and state were closely allied again. Church roles in all levels of education were pervasive, and there was a popular Catholic revival under way.
       With the rise of republicanism and the early years of the First Republic, especially from 1910 to 1917, Church-state relations reached a new low. A major tenet of republicanism was anticlericalism and the belief that the Church was as much to blame as the monarchy for the backwardness of Portuguese society. The provisional republican government's 1911 Law of Separation decreed the secularization of public life on a scale unknown in Portugal. Among the new measures that Catholics and the Church opposed were legalization of divorce, appropriation of all Church property by the state, abolition of religious oaths for various posts, suppression of the theology school at Coimbra University, abolition of saints' days as public holidays, abolition of nunneries and expulsion of the Jesuits, closing of seminaries, secularization of all public education, and banning of religious courses in schools.
       After considerable civil strife over the religious question under the republic, President Sidónio Pais restored normal relations with the Holy See and made concessions to the Portuguese Church. Encouraged by the apparitions at Fátima between May and October 1917, which caused a great sensation among the rural people, a strong Catholic reaction to anticlericalism ensued. Backed by various new Catholic organizations such as the "Catholic Youth" and the Academic Center of Christian Democracy (CADC), the Catholic revival influenced government and politics under the Estado Novo. Prime Minister Antônio de Oliveira Salazar was not only a devout Catholic and member of the CADC, but his formative years included nine years in the Viseu Catholic Seminary preparing to be a priest. Under the Estado Novo, Church-state relations greatly improved, and Catholic interests were protected. On the other hand, Salazar's no-risk statism never went so far as to restore to the Church all that had been lost in the 1911 Law of Separation. Most Church property was never returned from state ownership and, while the Church played an important role in public education to 1974, it never recovered the influence in education it had enjoyed before 1911.
       Today, the majority of Portuguese proclaim themselves Catholic, and the enduring nature of the Church as an institution seems apparent everywhere in the country. But there is no longer a monolithic Catholic faith; there is growing diversity of religious choice in the population, which includes an increasing number of Protestant Portuguese as well as a small but growing number of Muslims from the former Portuguese empire. The Muslim community of greater Lisbon erected a Mosque which, ironically, is located near the Spanish Embassy. In the 1990s, Portugal's Catholic Church as an institution appeared to be experiencing a revival of influence. While Church attendance remained low, several Church institutions retained an importance in society that went beyond the walls of the thousands of churches: a popular, flourishing Catholic University; Radio Re-nascenca, the country's most listened to radio station; and a new private television channel owned by the Church. At an international conference in Lisbon in September 2000, the Cardinal Patriarch of Portugal, Dom José Policarpo, formally apologized to the Jewish community of Portugal for the actions of the Inquisition. At the deliberately selected location, the place where that religious institution once held its hearings and trials, Dom Policarpo read a declaration of Catholic guilt and repentance and symbolically embraced three rabbis, apologizing for acts of violence, pressures to convert, suspicions, and denunciation.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Catholic church

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